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Стилистика 23.10.2006 12:41
Стилистика – 2 Functional
style 23.10.2006 12:41
Семинар 1 Scientific prose style 23.10.2006 12:41
Стилистика Scientific Prose Style 23.10.2006 12:41
Expressive means and stylistic devices 23.10.2006 12:41
Seminar 2 Newspaper style 23.10.2006 12:41
Seminar 3 Publicistic style 23.10.2006 12:41
Stylistic syntax 10/23/06 12:41 PM
Literary text as a poetic
structure 10/23/06 12:41 PM
Стилитика анггл языка
Арнольд
Гальперин
ВА Кухаренко Seminars in Style
The Subject matter of stylistics
Stylistics is a branch of
general linguistics the principles and categories of which have been
moire or less definitely outlined. It deals mainly with 2 independent tasks –
1) investigation of the inventory of the special language
means which secure the desirable effect of the utterance.
The investigation of certain
types of texts which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of
communication.
The first field of investigation
– that is stylistic devices and expressive *means – touches upon
such general problems as the esthetic function of language, synonymy, emotional coloring in language, the interrelation
between language and thought, the individual manner of the author in
making use of language and so on.
The 2nd field – that is functional styles – is connected
with such most general linguistic issues as oral and written varieties
of language, the notion of the literary language, and so on.
Nowadays, no science is entirely isolated from
other domains of knowledge and stylistics is closely connected with
such adjacent disciplines as theory of information, literature, psychology, logic,
statistics and so on. According to different principles of classification
stylistics is subdivided into the following varieties – stylistics
of language and stylistics of speech, linguostylistics and literary
stylistics, stylistics of the author and of the reader or stylistics
of decoding and encoding. One of the developing branches of stylistics
is comparative stylistics, which studies the potentialities of 2 or
more languages.
Stylistics of language studies the specific
features of language subsystems or functional styles characterized by special lexical phraseological
and grammatical means on the 1 hand, and expressive, emotional and evaluative
properties of lang means on the other hand.
Stylistics of speech investigates how separate
real texts convey a message relying not only on the laws of grammar and stylistics
but on the meaningful deviations from these norms as well. The main
principles of linguostylistics were outlined by Charles Bally, an outstanding
French linguist.
According to him, linguostylistics compares the national norm with special language subsystems
that is functional styles and dialects. And exists as functional stylistics.
And it investigates language elements. From the point of view from their
ability to express and evoke emotions, additional associations and evaluation.
Charles Bally worked out and introduced into practice the principle
of identification, which consists in comparing the elements of the text
under analysis with the elements logically equivalent to it but stylistically
and emotionally neutral. the aim of literary stylistics is to study
the subtotal of artistic expressive means typical of this or that artistic
text, author, literary school or epoch. Linguostylistics and literary
stylistics are closely connected as the former conserves the basis for
the latter.
Literary stylistics is in its turn extensively
connected with the theory of literature. Artistic literature is studied
by hundreds of disciplines and studies – aesthetics, psychology, theory
of literature, linguistics and so on. Each of these disciplines has its own specific
tasks, approaches, methods and categories that all of them are interrelated.
The aim of literary stylistics is to give a
deep insight into the author's individual poetic method and here literary stylistics depends on another
adjacent disciplines.
Linguostylistics and literary stylistics may be subdivided according
to the accepted in stylistics hierarchy of linguistic levels. There
is no uniformity of views concerning the inventory of linguistic levels.
But the following ones are most often distinguished –
Phonetic
Lexical
Morphological
Syntactical
levels. Accordingly, stylistic lexicology studies
stylistic function of words, the interaction of direct and indirect
meanings, the contextual meaning of words, expressive , emotional and evaluative potentialities
of words and their stylistic references, stylistic potentialities of
phraseology and word building process.
Stylistic morphology describes stylistic potentiality
of different grammatical categories – case, number, tense – and the classes of words.
Stylistic syntax is concerned with the expressive potentialities of
word order, different types of sentence structure and syntactic types.
It also investigates special syntactical expressive means and specific
features of supraphrasal units and paragraphs.
Stylistic phonetics embraces all the phenomena
of sound arrangement and instrumentation of both prose and verse –
rhythm, rhyme,alliteration and so on. Along with their formal characteristics, linguistic
units have meanings. Meanings are investigated and described by a branch
of liguistics called semantics of semaseology. Certain scholars say
that meaning make an independent level – semantic level. But some
think that this matter is not valid because meanings are not material
unlike linguistic units of other levels and meanings are not levelforming
as they are not attached to only 1 level but corellate with all of them.
Stylisticvs is closely connected with another discipline – theory
of information. The term Information itself which has now become part
of the terminological system of styulistics is borrowed from the theory
of information. While describing and interpreting a text stylistically
one should bear in mind that information contained in it may be of 2
types – primary and secondary. Primary is not connected with the circumstances
of the communicative act. It is meaning as such, the subject matter
of communication. Additional or secondary information is connected with
the participants and circumstances of the communicative act. The difference
between these 2 types of information may be used as the opposition between
the denotative and connotative meanings of the word. The denotative
meaning of the word is associated with the concept, the connotative
meaning includes several components – emotional, expressive, evaluative
and stylistic. They reflect the speaker;s attitude to what the speaker
has said, his approvel and disapproval, his cultural, educational, social
status, age, emotional background. The opposition between the denotative
and connotative meanings may be treated proceeding from the functions
of any language.
Functions of the language serve as manifestations
of its natural essence and admit of different interpretations. There
are some points of view concerning their number and meaning. Thus, Some
scholars distinguish communicative, cognitive, emotive, and metalinguistic
functions of the language.
These basic primary functions are inseparably
connected with a number of secondary ones, fe – volatative, phatics – necessary to initiate a conversation,
poetic, aesthetic.
The information of the first type is associated
with the communicative function of the language. The information of
the 2nd type is cpnnected with all the other functions = emotive, pragmatic, phatic, aesthetic.
The aim of stylistic analysis and interpretation
is to study the interaction between the logical, denotative content
of the message – primary information, with the secondary information. It is necessary to emphasize
that the distinction between the types of information, denotative and
connotative meanings, the objective and the subjective in the utterance,
is made only for the sake of analysis. In reality they form a single
whole representing different aspects of one and the same phenomenon.
The approach chosen to stylistic analysis by
Arnold is to a great extent based on the application of the theory of
information to linguistics. Stylistics of decoding treats a text or
an utterance as a message containing information encoded by the author and meant to be decoded by the rteader
or by the speaker. The linguostylistic analysis combined with the procedures
of literary stylistics, is aimed at decoding the information in its
fullness.
Varieties of language. The functioning
of the literary language in various spheres of communication has resulted
in its differentiation. The actual situation of communication has evolved
2 varieties of language – the spoken and the written. Diachronically,
the spoken is primary, and the written is secondary. Each of these varieties
has developed its own features and qualities which in many ways may
be regarded as opposed to each other. The spoken variety differs from
the written language phonetically, morphologically, lexically, and syntactically.
The most striking difference between the spoken
and written language is in the vocabulary used. In the spoken variety
we observe the use of words and phrases typically colloquial than intensifying
words, the insertion into the utterance of words that are called fill-ups
or empty words (…and all). The syntactical peculiarities of the spoken
language are constructions which have missing elements, the tendency
to use the direct word order in questions and to omit the auxiliary
verbs, the use of unfinished sentences (if you behave like that I'll),
the use of syntactical structures with the tautological subject (Helen,
she was here).
Distinction should also be made between the
literary or standard or the NATIONAL language. The national language
is the creation of the people on the whole. It is opposed to other national
languages and to the languages of other human communities. The literary
language is the elaborated form or variety of the national language
which obeys definite morphological, phonetic, syntactical, lexical and
phraseological norms, recognized as standard and therefore acceptable
in all kinds and types of discourse.
According to its cultural and social status, the literary
language is opposed to territorial varieties of the language, ie dialects,
socialects and popular speech. There is no hard and fast division between
the literary and non-literary language, cuz they are independent. The
development of the literary language is marked by the process of selection.
The real creator of the literary form is the people who is the actual
law-giver of the norms. Scientists and men of letters only fix what
has already been established by general use. The gap between the literary
and non-literary English became wide in the 18th century. In the 19th
century literary English demonstrated a more or less firmly established
differentiation of styles. Thus, the dichotomy of written and oral speech
which manifests itself in the gap between the literary and non-literary
forms led way to a cluster of varieties within the literary language
that is to stratification into different styles.
The Norm
The notion of the norm mainly refers to the
literary language And ALWAYS presupposes a recognized, received standard.
The norm is the invariant of the phonemic, morphological, lexical patterns
circulating in speech at a given period of time. The development of
every literary language shows that the variants will always center around
the invariant forms. Different norms, for various types and styles of
language do not exclude the existence of the invariant. There are 2
conflicting tendencies in the process of establishing the norm. The
1st one is the preservation of the already existing norm and 2nd is
the introduction of the new norms not yet firmly established. The norm
is composed of the subtotal of generally accepted traditional forms
in which the structure of language is realized. By the structure of
language we mean the system of interrelated and interdependent constituents
in which the elements of lower levels serve to build the elements of
higher levels. The abstract language structure finds its realization
in a collection of traditions and rules accepted at a given period that
is the norm. The norm can be realized only in speech. Thus the existance
of the norm presupposes the existence of the following oppositions –
structure\norm\indi idual speech
National norm\dialect, neutral style\colloquial\booki h
style, literary speech\popular speech\written speech. Each of them is
based on its own norm. Thus the norm includes different subsystems of the structural realization.
One of the objects of lingual stylistics is
the study of the functional styles. The word style is used in so many
senses that it has become a breeding ground for ambiguity. The term
individual style can be applied to that sphere of ling science that deals with the
peculiarities of a writer's individual manner, of using language means
to achieve the effect he desires. Individual style is a unique combination
of language units, expressive means and stylistic devices which makes
the writers works easily recognizable. The term style may be used in
the meaning of «technique of expression». It is also widely used in
literature to signify the literary genre. In stylistics, the term style
is used in the meaning «functional style». FS is a system of interrelated
language means which serves a definite aim in communication. The FS
are included in the literary system of the language. The peculiar choice
of language means is primarily predetermined by the aim of communication.
The result of it is the existence of a more or less closed system.
Galperin one of the outstandling scholars on
the field of stylistics, distinguishes
the following FS -
lang of belles-lettres
the language of publicistic literature,
the lang of scientific prose,
newspapers,
official documents.
FS are the products of the development of the
written language variety. Each FS may be characterized by a number of
distinctive features – leading or subordinate, constant or changing,
obligatory or optional. Each FS is subdivided in a number of substyles. They represent
varieties of the abstract invariant. Each variety has basic features
common to all varieties of the given FS, and peculiar features, typical
of this variety alone.
Substyles of the 5 FS given above:
The language of BL
Prose
Drama
Poetry
Publicistic
Oratory
Essays
Feature articles in newspapers
Newspapers
Lang style of brief news items and communiques
The lanf style of newspaper headlines
Notices and ads
Scientific prose
Humanitarian sciences
Exact sciences
Popular scientific prose
Official docs
Diplomatic docs
Business docs
Legal docs
Military docs
This classification is not proof against criticism.
The classification of FS is not a simple matter and any discussion may
reflect more than one angle of vision. Thus, for example, some stylicists consider
that newspaper articles should be classed under the FS of newspaper
language.
Professot Budagov singles out only 2 main FS. – The language of
science, and the language of emotive literature. IV Arnold distinguishes
3 main members of the opposition – colloq, bookish style and neutral
style. The term neutral is not a happy one because it implies the style
in which style features are absent. It serves as the background for
perceiving pronounced stylistic peculiarities. Colloquial English includes
3 varieties:
Literary coll
Familiar coll
Popular speech
But some scientists think that popular speech
can not be considered a FS since any style implies some choice but the
person using this type of speech has NO choice.
The group of bookish styles comprises the following FS:
The style of scientific prose
The style of official docs
The style of newspapers or publicistic style
The style of oratory
Poetic style
The group of bookish styles has no territorial varieties and has a
pronounced national and traditional character.
One of the controversial problems of classification of FS is the place
of the language of fiction within this classification some scholars
(Galperin Budagov) think that the belle lettres style does exist
as a separate FS.\
Vinogradov, Arnold and other scholars do not include this style in
the classification of the FS. According to their point of view, artistic
literature is an individual creation of a writer or a poet who resort
to all the subsystems of the literary language with its FS and regional
varieties and to those varieties that are not included into the norm.
Thus an artistic text is a peculiar conglomeration of all the lang
varieties, a peculiar reflection of the national language. In conclusion
it should be noted that the category of FS is a historical category.
Different styles singled out in different historical periods.
Изучить особенности научногостиля
и исп в худ лит
Для анализа – Stephen Leacock New Pathology
Benchley – why do we love and do we
Любой отрывок из нпаучной
фантастики
reference books also refer to the scientific prose style
reduced to summing up and passing oin the objective information – disclising laws, creating new
concepts
expressivities first are used but then are
incorporated into the structure as terms.
The phatic function is not realized as the
style exists mostly in the written varieties.
The aesthetic function is optional but may be present perceived by the rare
professional
When used outside of the stylistical prose,
its features become stylistically charged.
New Pathology
Lexical level
Pseudo latin – latin suffix+english root
Pseudoterms, ocasionalisms, coined words
We can observe the discrepancy between the matter
and the manner – the form and the message. Like in Any deviation from
the norm, there is stylistic relevance, making the text satirical, ironical.
Alongside with the neutral vocab, we observe the author's pseudo terms adding
to the satirical flavor.
Why we laugh or do we?
Terms – compensatory reflex, etc
Ready-made - casrdinal point, diagram
Foreignisms
General vocabulary
Pseudoterms
Colloq eng used alongsisde with the scientific
Foornotes are digressing, bulky, bearing no
important information.
Scientifi form is again applied to the trivial
context, serving as a mechanism of irony.
Distinctive features of any FS depend on its social purpose and the combination
of functions of language prevailing in the act of communication.
That is on the sphere and the aims of communication. It is generally
accepted that the communicative and the cognitive func-s of
the language are realized in scientific prose. All the rest are optional.
The rest of the science follows the following aims – to prove the hypothesis,
to create new concepts, to disclose laws and relations between the different
phenomena and so on.
This style exists in the forms of a scientific
article, a dissertation, a scientific report, a textbook, and so on.
The style-forming factors of this FS are –
objectivity, precision, unemotional and traditional character of writing,
absence of individuality, logical consistency. Striving for the more
generalized form of expression. Style forming factors – predetermine concrete linguistic features of
a style.
The level of vocabulary. The most noticeable
lexical features of the style are
The use of terms specific to each given branch
of science
Due to the rapid development of science and technical ideas this layer of vocabulary is
constantly growing.
No other field of human activity is so prolific in coining new words
as science is
the necessity to penetrate deeper into the essence of things gives rise to new concepts which require new
words to name them
the use of learned words or general scientific vocabulary and readymade
syntactical units including such words and phrases as cardinal, approximate, analysis,
heterogeneous, one should note, in conclusion….so on.
the general vocabulary implied in scientific prose bears its direct
referential meaning. Words with contextual meaning are avoided as well
as any possibility of ambiguity.
the use of the technical nomenclature of a given science. – figures,
proper names, dates and so on.
The level of morphology
the use of passive constructions providing
the impersonality of the text.
The abundance of constructions with the indefinite
pronoun «one».
The prevalence of nouns over verbs
The absence of interjections
The peculiar use of pronouns
Syntax
The logical sequence of the utterances with
clear indication of their interrelations.
The syntax is governed by the logical reasoning.
The prevalence of full declarative complex
sentences
A well developed and varied system of conjunctions
and connectives.
The use of direct word order.
There is a noticeable difference in the syntactical
design of utterances in the exact sciences and in the Humanities due to
the fact that the data and the methods of investigation in the Humanities
are less objective
Composition
Is marked by the use of quotation and references
which sometimes occupy as much as half a page.
References also have a definite compositional
pattern.
The frequent use of footnotes, not of the reference
kind but digressive in character, the things that seem to violate the
logical coherence of ideas, are placed in a footnote.
Paragraphing, which serves as a means facilitating the reader's understanding of
the text.
Graphic
The use of numbering, lettering, different
types of print, diagrams, pictures, photos, various additional visual
materials
Expressivity is not entirely categorically
excluded from scientific prose
It is realized in the use of emotionally colored
words which express some hypothesis, backed up by strong belief.
Prevalence of quantitative expressivity – most essential, much the same, almost all
of which and so on.
Imaginative expressivity takes place mostly when new terms are coined
Expressivity in scientific prose is often realized
in the form of logical expressivity – I wish to emphasize…
arnold – descriptive means
tropes (lexical level – create images)
syntactical structires – figures of speech - inversion, parallelism,
Tropes can be characterized as paradigmatic
because they're based on the associations of the words chosen by the
author with the words similar in meaning but not used in the text. Figures
of speech ar syntagmatic because they’re based on the linear arrangement of their
constituent parts and their effect depends entirely on their place in
the utterance. Decoding stylistics never treats tropes and figures of
speech in entire isolation from the artistic whole that is text but
in close connection with it. The aim of stylistics is not to provide
the complete inventory of stylistic means but to interpret their
role in a process of conveying the idea.
Galperin distinguishes between expressive means
and stylistic devices. The expressive means of a language are those
phonetic, morphological word building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical
forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical
and emotional intensification of the utterance.
These intensifying forms have been singled out in grammars, courses in
phonetics, and dictionaries as having special functions in making the
utterances emphatic. Some of them are normalized and fixed in dictionaries
as expressive means. In most cases they have corresponding neutral synonymous
forms. Expressive means are concrete facts of language, and they are
studied in the respective language manuals.
A stylistic device is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural
or semantic property of a language unit promoted to a generalized status
and thus becoming a generative model. It means that a stylistic device
is an abstract pattern, a mold into which any content can be poured.
The interrelation between expressive means
and stylistic devices can be worded in terms of the theory of information. Expressive
means have a greater degree of predictability than stylistic devices.
Expressive means follow the natural course
of thought, intensifying it by means commonly used in the language.
Stylistic devices carry a greater amount of information and require
a certain effort to decode their meaning and purpose. iN modern stylistics
there have been suggested new approaches to the problem of expressive
means. The detailed classification of these means has stopped being
a top priority question. The main opposition is that of the norm and
a deviation from the norm. The problem of the deviation from the norm
is a crucial issue of stylistics, rhetoric and the theory of literature.
Many linguists believe that the appearance of the stylistic effect depends
primarily on the deviations from the norm and the essence of the artistic
language consists in violating norms.
Lexical expressive means
and stylistic devices that is tropes.
The interaction of the word meanings in the process of creating an artistic images has always
been investigated in terms of tropes. Tropes are lexical expressive
means in which a word or a wordgroup is used in a transferred sense.
The interaction or interplay between the primary dictionary meaning,
and a meaning which is imposed on the word by a microcontext, may be
maintained along different lines. One line is when the author identifies
two objects which have nothing in common but in which he subjectively
sees a function or a property or a feature that may make the reader
perceive these two objects as identical. Stylistic device based on the
principle of identification is a metaphor. The term metaphor as the
etymology of the word means transferrance of qualities of some word
to the other.
Galperin defines metaphor as the power of realizing
two lexical meanings simultaneously , that is the kind of identification,
unlike Arnold who defines metaphor as a hidden comparison in which the
name of one object is applied to another object.
Metaphors can be classified acc, to their degree of unexpectedness.
Thus, metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, that are quite unpredictable,
are called GENUINE metaphors. They are regarded as belonging to the
language-in-action, that is they are speech metaphors. ( f.e. I saw
him coming out of the anaesthetic of her charm – anaesthetic is used
metaphorically, being a genuine metaphor. Also The leaves fell sorrowfully.)
Those metaphors that are commonly used in speech and therefore are
sometimes fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are
called trite or dead metaphors whose predictability is quite apparent.
Trite metaphors belong to language-as-a-system and are usually fixed
in dictionaries as units of the language (f.e. A ray of hope, floods
of tears, a storm of indignation, a flight of fancy, dawn of life, град пуль) .
Genuine metaphors are mostly to found in poetry and emotive prose.
Trite metaphors are generally used in newspaper articles, oratory style,
scientific language.
The use of trite metaphors should not be regarded as drawback of style.
They help the writer to enliven his work and even make the meaning more
concrete.
There is constant interaction between genuine
and trite metaphors. Genuine metaphors if they are good and can stand
the test of time, may through frequent repetition, become trite and
easily predictable. Trite metaphors may regain their freshness through
the process of prolongation of the metaphor.
In this case, metaphors are injected with new vigor, and their primary
meaning is re-established alongside the new meaning. This is done by
supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional
words bearing some reference to the main word. Such metaphors are called
sustained metaphors, prolonged or developed. For example, mister pickwick
bottled up his vengeance and corked it down. The word to bottle up is
defined as to restrain, to conceal, to repress. This trite metaphor
is revived by the direct meaning of the word to cork down. Thus the
metaphor is revived and regains its freshness, gets a second life. The
principle metaphor is the principal image of the sustained metaphor.
And the other words that bear reference to the image are contracted
images.
To create an image means to bring a phenomenon from the highly abstract
to the essentially conctrete. Metaphors make abstract ideas more concrete.
It is thru metaphor that the author expresses hos individual attitude
to the things described. Metaphor is always evaluative and emotionally
charged.
Another variety of metaphor is a linguistical one. The matter has no other denotation
and the comparison is completely forgotten (a leg of a table, mouth
of a river, лист бумаги). Metaphor first appears in the language as a genuine metaphor,
then it may be frequently repeated and become trite, and then may become
lexicalized.
Metaphors may be denoted by any part of speech
(past was a wound in his heart; the trees were powdered by april snow;
the leaves fell sorrowfully)
Personification is a trope, a kind of metaphor,which
endows a thing or a phenomenon with features peculiar of a human being.sometimes
it is marked by capitalization. Words used as personification may be
substituted by personal pronouns HE\SHE, may be used in the genitive
case, and accompanied by verbs, denoting the processes of speech, thought,
volition and so on. F.E. – at that time my virtue slumbered. Mother
Nature always blushes before disrobing. Personification may sometimes
take the form of a digress (o night and storm and darkness ye art wonderous
storm.
The stylistic function of personification is
to help the reader visualize the description, tp impart dynamic force
to it, or to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer.
Irony.
Irony is based on the simultaneous realization
of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual. Which stand in opposition to
each other. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country
without a penny in one's pocket. The word containing irony is strongly
marked by intonation. It has an emphatic stress, and is generally
supplied with a special melody design, Unless the context renders this
intonation patters unnecessary. In irony, the contextual meaning is
very fluctuating, suggestive, and dependent on the environment. That
is why there are practically no cases of irony in language as a system.
Irony mustn't be confused with humor, although
they have much in common. The function of irony is not confined to producing
a humorous effect. In a sentence like How clever of you! The irony doen's
cause ludicrous effect. It rather expresses the feeling of irritation, displeasure,
or regret. A word used ironically may sometimes express very subtle,
almost imperceptible nuances of meaning.
Metonymy.
Metonymy is based on some association connecting
two concepts which these meanings represent. Types of metonymy-forming interrelations
of two objects are manifold.
Names of tools or instruments are used instead
of actions. He earns his living by his pen.
Consequences are used instead of cause (the
fish desperately takes the death)
Characteristic feature of the object instead
of the object itself (blue suit grinned, might even have winkled.
Symbol instead of the object symbolized.
A concrete thing insntead of an abstract notion
(the camp, the pulpit and the law for rich men's sons are free.)
The container instead of the thing contained
(we had to discuss her bloody awful wardrobe. The hall applauded.)
The relations of proximity. (the round game
table was boisterous and happy)
The material instead of the thing made of it. (the marble
spoke)
The thing a person posesses instead of the
person himself (he has married money)
The name of the creator instead of the thing
created by him.
The list of metonymical relations is in no
way complete. There are many other types of relations which may serve as a basis for metonymy.
There are a lot of widely used metonimies which
are fixed in dictionaries and which have become facts of language as
a system. They are called traditional metonimies (crown for king or
queen; cup for the drink)
We smiled at each other but we didn't speak
because there were ears all around us.
Metonymy ised in speech, contextual metonymy,
is called genuine metonymy, and reveals a quite unexpected substitution
of one word for another on the ground of some strong impression produced by a chance feature of a thing.
He didn't realize it but he was about a sentence
away from needing plastic surgery.
Synecdoche.
S. is the simplest kind of metonymy which consists
in using the name of a part to denote the whole (hands wanted; a student is expected to know).
Antonomasia – acc to
Galperin it is based on the interplay of the between the lexical and
nominal meanings and these two kinds of meanings may be realized in
the word simultaneously. The term antonomasia is used to denote two
varieties of the use of proper names as common nouns and vice versa.
Metaphorical antonomasia is the use of the name of a historical literary
mythological or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic
features resemble those of the well-known original. Thus a traitor may
be referref to as Brutus, and the word hooligan going back to a proper
name, has lost its capital letter, and become a traditional antonomasia.
Metonymic antonomasia is observed in cases when a personal name stands
for something connected with the bearer of that name who once really
existed(I am fond of Dickens.) Antonomasia serves as a basis for token
or telling names. They give information to the reader anout the bearer
of the name pointing out the leading mose characteristic feature of
a person(Mr Zero, Ms Blueyes).
Another group of expressive means is based
on the interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings. Here belong
zeugma and pun.
Zeugma
Z is the use of the word in the same grammatical
but different semantic relation to the adjacent words in the context,
the semantic relation being on the 1 hand literal, on the other hand,
transferred. (he had a good taste for wine and whisky and an emergency
bell in his bedroom). The verb had somultaneously governs such incompatible
sequences as taste for smth and the emergency bell. The contrast between
the syntactic identity of adjuncts and their semantic incompatibility
is a means of creating differenc connotative effects.
It is difficult to drqaw a distinction between the zeugma and pun.The only reliable distinguishing
feature is a structural one. Zeugma is the realization of 2 meanings
with a help of a verb and pun is more independent. There needn't be
a word to which the pun word refers.
Intensification of a certain feature or a thing or phenomena.
Hyperbole
Simile
Periphrasis
Euphemism
Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential
for the object or phenomena (he ll go to sleep, my god he should. 8
Martinis before dinner and enough wine to wash an elephant)
Hyperbole may loose its meaning thru frequent
use and become a unit of the lang as a system reproduced in the speech in its unaltered
form. (scared to death, immensely obliged, I'd give the world too see
him)
An original hyperbole as distinct from trite ones is exaggeration on
a big scale. There must be something illogical in it. Something unreal,
utterly impossible, contrary to common sense. For example he was so
tall that I wasn’t sure he head a face.
Paradoxical illogical hyperboles are employed for humorous purposes. In general
hyperbole has the function of intensifying one certain property of the
object described It sharpens the reader's ability to make a logical
assessment of the utterance.
Periphrasis is a use of a longer phrase instead of a shorter and plainer element
of expression. P as all the other tropes can be divided into original
creations of individual authors and trite ones, many of which have become
part of the general lexicon. P as a stylictic device is a new genuine
nomination of an object, a process which realizes the power of language
to coin new names for old objects. Stylistic periphrasis can also be
subdivided into logical and figurative. Logical p is based on one of
the inherent properties of the object described (instruments of destruction,
the most pardonable of human weaknesses). These are logical periphrasi
Galperin
Brief news articles
Ads Announcements
Editorials
Substyles
Characterize each of these
forms. Present the theory and illustrate with the examples from the news
Editorials – trite phraseology
– idioms, familiar, quotations, proverbs, allusions – historical,
literary, biblical.
Level – rich, diverse,
colloquial,
Trite Metaphors, periphrasis,
irony – easily perceivable
Syntax – logical consistency, appeal. Complex sentences
with well developed clause system. Refined logical system. Inversion
is widely used. Rethorical questions, parallelisms, inversions; anaphoric,
epiphoric repetition, gradation.
Antithesis 0 based upon
the usage if antonyms proper
Headline
Violation of PE, split phraseology
Polysemi
Homophones, homographs
Graphic means – bold,
italics
Alliteration
elliptical sentences – anything can be omitted.
Dicteted by the complexity
of the functions.
Ads
Classified-= non classified
2 tendencies – brevity
and redundancy.
Ellyptical sentences –
no articles, aux, punctuation marks
Use of contractions, abbr.
monosyllabic words.
Non-classifieds -
Galperin
+official doc
Pubblicistic style – oral
variety, oratorial style.
Fiction results (octopus
Morris; all the king's men)
Syntax is the branch of Language science which studies the types of relations
between words, word combinations, sentences and utterances. In the domain
of syntax it is difficult to distinguish between what is purely grammatical
and what is stylistic. Stylistic syntax deals with the peculiarities
of the structural design of the utterance which bear some particular
emotional coloring. Syntactical stylistic patterns may be viewed as
variants of the general syntactical models of the language. Syntactical
relations can be studied in isolation from semantic content. In this
case they are viewed as constituents of the whole and assume their independent
grammatical meaning. Stylistics aims at investigating the objective
criteria concerning ways and means of constructing texts of different
kinds and genres. For this purpose it is first of all necessary to find
the elements into which any text may fall. In other words, there may
be certain constituent units, of which any text is composed – words,
word combinations, and sentences function in larger structural frames
which are called supraphrasal units. A supraphrasal unit is a combination
of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity backed up by
a rhythmic and melodic unity. It generally comprises a number of sentences
independent structurally and semantically. A paragraph is a graphical
term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at
the beginning and a break in the line at the end.
A paragraph is a compositional device at either
facilitating the process of apprehending what is written or inducing
a certain reaction on the part of the reader. From a mere compositional
device it may turn into a stylistic one. It discloses the writer's
manner of depicting the object in question. Galperin distinguishes between
the syntactical expressive means and syntactical stylistic devices.
Unlike syntactical expressive means of the language, syntactical stylistic
devices are preceived as elaborate designs aimed at having a definite
impact on the reader. Galperin distinguishes the following groups of
syntactical forms of expressive means and stylistic devices.
Those based on juxtapostion
of the different parts of the sentence.
Stylistic inversion
Detached construction
Parallel construction
Chiasmus – reversed parallel construction
Repetition
Enumeration
Suspense
Antithesis
Gradation
Based on the types of connection
between the parts of the utterance
Asyndeton
Polysyndeton
Based on the peculiar use of colloquial constructions
Ellipsis
Aposiopesis – break in the narrative
Question in the narrative
Represented speech
Based on the stylistic use
of structural meaning
Rhetorical question
Litotes
Arnold distinguishes the following groups of
syntactical stylistic structures –
Those based on the unusual
arrangement of the sentence elements
Inversion
detachment
Those based on the transposition
of the synt. Structures
Rhetorical questions
Those based on redundancy
Repetition
Polysyndeton
Those based on the omission of the logically obligatory elements or on syntactical
compression
Ellipsis
Asyndeton
Aposiopesis
Based on Violation the integrity
of the sentence
Anacoluthon
Inversion
Word order is a crucial syntactical problem
in many languages. In English it has peculiarities which have been caused by the concrete and specific
way the language has developed. The predominance of the subject-predicate-ob ect
word order makes conspicuous any change in the structure of the sentence.
Unlike grammatical inversion, stylistic inversion does not change the
structural meaning of the sentence. Stylistical inversion aims at attaching
logical stress or additional emotional coloring to the service meaning
of the sentence. Therefore, a specific intonation pattern is an inevitable
satellite of inversion. Stylistic inversion in modern English should
not be regarded as a violation of the norms of standard English. It
is only the practical realization of what is potential in the language
itself. The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently
met in both English prose and poetry:
The object is placed at the beginning of the
sentence – talent Mr Smith has, capitol Mr Smith has
not.
The attribute is placed after the word it modifies
- Once upon a midnight dreary….
The predicative is placed before the subject – a good generous prayer it was…
Predicative stands before the link verb and
both a placed before the subject – rude am I in my speech.
The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning
of the sentence – eagerly I wished the morrow.
Both modifier and predicate stand before the
subject – In went mr Pickwick.
Part of the compound modal predicate is placed
at the beginning of the sentence – go I must.
Direct object is placed at the beginning of
the sentence – her love letters I returned to the detectives.
Partial and complete inversion
Partial – connected with a displacement of a secondary
members of the sentence
Complete – involves the displacement of the principal members
of the sentence
Secondary inversion consists in preserving direct WO in questions. In modern English poetry
there appears a definite tendency to experiment with the word order.
In this case there can be almost unlimited number of rearrangements
of the members of the sentence.
Detached construction.
Sometimes one of the secondary parts of the
sentence by some specific consideration of the writer is placed so that
it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to. Such
parts are called detached. The detached part being torn away from its
referent, assumes a greater degree of significance, and is given prominence
by intonation. There may be various types of detached constructions
- attribute, adv.modifier, are placed not in the immediate proximity
to its referent, but in some other position. (He rose up, grinding his
teeth, pale and with fury in his eyes).
A nominal phrase may serve as a detached element
(and he walked slowly passed along the river – an и т.д.................
