Здесь можно найти учебные материалы, которые помогут вам в написании курсовых работ, дипломов, контрольных работ и рефератов. Так же вы мажете самостоятельно повысить уникальность своей работы для прохождения проверки на плагиат всего за несколько минут.
Предлагаем нашим посетителям воспользоваться бесплатным программным обеспечением «StudentHelp», которое позволит вам всего за несколько минут, выполнить повышение оригинальности любого файла в формате MS Word. После такого повышения оригинальности, ваша работа легко пройдете проверку в системах антиплагиат вуз, antiplagiat.ru, РУКОНТЕКСТ, etxt.ru. Программа «StudentHelp» работает по уникальной технологии так, что на внешний вид, файл с повышенной оригинальностью не отличается от исходного.
Результат поиска
Наименование:
Шпаргалка Шпаргалка по "Теории и практике перевода"
Информация:
Тип работы: Шпаргалка.
Добавлен: 26.12.2014.
Год: 2014.
Страниц: 22.
Уникальность по antiplagiat.ru: < 30%
Описание (план):
The notion
of translation
Translation – a process of conveying or rendering the meaning
(content) of SL units in the TL as well as the result of this process.
There are 2 forms
of translation: 1) in writing and 2) in viva voce (orally).
Translation conveys
the meaning of the following language units:
The phoneme – is a speech sound, the smallest 1-facet language
unit, it has a form but has no meaning. Phonemes are graphically represented
by letters. Phonemes usually do not take part in the process of translation,
but they are used in translation of proper names, geographical names,
internationalisms, neologisms and units of specific national lexicon.
“a”, І-в-а-н-о-в - I-v-a-n-o-v
The morpheme – is the smallest indivisible 2-facet language
unit (has both form and meaning). It is the smallest sense unit.
superprofit – надприбуток, cloudless –
безхмарний
The word – is the basic 2-facet language unit. The word is
the smallest independent sense unit. Words are divisible (for morphemes).
blackboard – дошка, strawberry – полуниця, dog –
собака
The word group/word-combinati n – is the largest 2-facet
lexical unit comprising more that 1 word.
first night – прем’єра
The sentence – is a 2-facet unit of speech which conveys
a more or less complete thought.
Every dark cloud has a silver lining. – Немає лиха без
добра.
A cat may look at a king. – Дивитися не заборонено.
The text – is the largest 2-facet language unit, consisting
of sentences bound by the same idea.
Two languages are
involved into translation process.
The Source language (SL) – is the language of the original
/ the language from which the process of translation is performed.
The Target language (TL) – is the language of the translation
/ the language into which the process of translation is performed.
Translation may imply
any sense-to-sense substitution of a SL unit for its semantic
(=having the same meaning) equivalent in the TL.
I live in Kiev – Я живу в Києві
first night – перша ніч
pretty woman - гарна жінка
Translation may imply
any sense-to-sense conveying even if the lexical meaning of the
constituents which make up a SL unit is not replaced with the identical
lexical meaning in the TL.
First night - прем’єра
pretty woman - красунечка
Translation may imply
any functional substitution at the text level. It is aimed at
recreating the function of a SL unit. Is used in the translation of
titles and stylistic devices.
“The Village” – “Таємничий ліс”
(the title was changed for marketing purposes)
“Some like it hot” – “В джазі лише дівчата”
“Over the hedge” – “Лісова братва”
Significance
of translation
The importance of
translation in the modern society has long been recognized. Not a single
contact at the international level or between 2 foreign persons can
be established without the help of translation. Translation is important
for functioning of different international bodies. Numerous branches
of national economies can be kept up with the modern development thanks
to the everyday translation. The other branches of human activity dealing
with the translation are: nuclear science, exploration of outer space,
ecology, mining, medicine, electronics etc. The social and political
role of translation has been the most felt in the XX-XXI century when
it provided the dissemination (=spreading) of political ideas.
Translation is a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching
the national languages, literatures and cultures. Finally, whatever the type of matter is translated, the linguistic and social significance of translation remains
unchanged because it promotes the enrichment of lexicon in the target language.
2. Translation
as a means of interlingual communication
Translation makes
possible an exchange of information between users of different languages
by producing the TL text which has an identical communicative value
with the SL text.
However, the TLT is
not fully identical with the SLT as to its form or meaning/content due
to the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between
the SL and the TL. But the users of the translation (translation receptors)
identify the TLT with the SLT functionally, semantically and structurally.
There are 3 types of identification:
The functional identification –
the TLT (the translation) functions as if it were the SLT (quoted, published,
cited etc.).
The structural identification –
the structure of translation (of the TLT) should follow that of the
original. There should be no change in the sequence of narration or
in the arrangement of the segments in the text (not the structure of
every sentence!)
The semantic identification –
the TLT (the translation) should have the same meaning as the SLT (the
original) (the meaning of the whole text, not every word, otherwise
it would be word-for-word translation, not literary artistic/proper).
The translator is
allowed to resort to different translation transformations if direct
translation is impossible for some reasons.
3-6. Ways of
translation
Literal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning and similar form in the SL and in the TL.
There are 2 ways of
performing literal translation: transcription and transliteration.
Transcription is the substitution of sounds in the process
of translation.
New-Castle – Нью-Касл
impeachment – імпічмент (but not імпеачмент)
leader – лідер
Transliteration is the substitution of letters in the process
of translation.
London – Лондон (but not Ландан)
Dublin - Дублін
bank – банк
club - клуб
Literal translation renders the meaning of the following words:
1) proper names (Іванов – Ivanov), 2) geographical names (Дніпро –Dnipro), 3)international words (football – футбол), 4)units of specific national lexicon
(вареники – varenyky), 5)neologisms (metrosexual – метросексуал).
The translator’s false friends are those words that have
similar form but different meaning in the SL and in the TL.
magazine – журнал (but not магазин)
lunatic – божевільний, шалений (but not
лунатик)
artist – художник, митець (but not артист)
Verbal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning but different lingual form in the SL and in the TL.
Verbal translation
renders sometimes the morphological structure of the SL words (ex. helpless – безпорадний, superprofit – надприбуток).
In most cases, the
morphological structure is not preserved because of the differences
in the morphological systems of the SL and the TL.
bomber – терорист
manager – управляючий
Verbal translation permits the choice of variants, which is practically impossible
in literal translating:
minister – міністр (literal), посланник, священик
(verbal)
bank – банк (literal), берег (річки),
край, мілина, вал/насип (verbal)
Verbal translation,
however, does not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other
than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or
sentences it may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert
or completely ruin their sense:
I am reading now – is not Я є читаючий зараз but Я читаю зараз
to take measures – is not брати міри but вживати заходів
Word-for-word translation/ consecutive verbal translation (дослівний
послідовний) is used at the level of word-combinations and sentences, which have the same structure, word order, and the same lexical meanings of
the constituents in the SL and the TL.
Who took my book? – Хто взяв мою книжку?
Word-for-word translation
is often used at the initial stage of translation. It does not always
work with phraseological units (cold as a cucumber – незворушний) except some
cases when a phraseological unit is taken from a third language –
Latin or Greek (to cross the Rubicon – перейти Рубікон).
Interlinear translation is used for a faithful rendering of
the meaning (but not structure) expressed by word-combinations and sentences, which are different in structure, at the level of some text. The sense
of phraseological units is not conveyed.
Interlinear translation
may be practically applied to all speech units (sentences, passages etc.)
It is used at the
higher level of translator’s activity. It is performed with transformations
when there is no identical form in the TL.
Interlinear translation
offers more variants than word-for-word translation.
Who took my book? – Де моя книжка?/ У кого моя
книжка?
Various transformations
in interlinear and literary translations are inevitable because of grammatical/structura ,
stylistic and other divergences in the SL and in the TL.
She said she would come. – Вона сказала, що прийде.
Transformations are
also inevitable when there is no direct equivalent for the SL units
in the TL.
a trip – коротка подорож, to ski – їздити
на лижах
Interlinear translation
is widely practiced at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying
a foreign language.
But it doesn’t convey
the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of the original (e.g.
translation of a stanza or passage)
Literary translation represents the highest level of a translator’s
activity. It can be either literary artistic or literary proper depending
on the type of the matter under translation.
Literary artistic translation (художній літературний)
is used to translate prose or poetry and faithfully conveys the content
and artistic merits of belles-lettres /bel’letr/ texts or passages
of the literary text.
Literary proper translation (власний літературний)
is used to translate some texts that may include scientific or technical
matter, business correspondence, newspapers and documents. In short,
any printed or recorded matter devoid of artistic merits (epithets,
metaphors etc.).
Literary translations
are always performed with many transformations because of stylistic
differences between the SL and the TL. Transformations are necessary
to convey the meaning of the original, and to achieve ease and beauty
of the original composition.
Literary proper/artistic
translation of a larger passage often requires some additional research
or linguistic, historical and other enquiries in order to clarify the
obscure places (historic events, units of specific national lexicon,
neologisms, archaisms etc.). Sometimes even the title of a work may
require a philological or historical inquiry.
Ex. «Слово о Полку Ігоревім» - “A word about
Ihor’s Regiment” (in a word-for-word translation, which doesn’t
correspond to the real meaning)
“The Tale/ lay of the Host of Ihor”, “The Song of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prince Igor’s Raid against
the Polovtsi” (which corresponds to the real meaning of the title
– повість, пісня про Ігореве військо,
дружину)
«Тихий Дон» (М.Шолохов) – “And Quiet Flows the
Don” or “The Don Flows home to the Sea” (a word-for word translation
“The Quiet Don” or “The Still Don” would not convey the poetic
flavour of the original title)
These variants could
have been suggested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into
the novel’s content, into its main idea and into the whole system
of images of these works.
7. KINDS OF TRANSLATION
The sense of a language
unit (the content of a whole matter) can be conveyed in the TL either
in writing or in viva voce (orally). Depending on the form of conveying
the sense/content, the following kinds of translating/ interpreting
(oral translating) are to be distinguished:
The written translation/-ing from a written matter/source –
is a faithful conveying of a matter translating in writing from one
language into another. It represents a literary or any other faithful
sense-to-sense translation from or into a foreign language. It may also
be a free interpreting performed in writing. The matter under translation
may be different, ex. a belles-lettres passage (prose or poetry work),
a scientific or technical, newspaper passage, article or even separate
words (in a list) etc.
The oral translation/-ing from an oral matter/source – is
a faithful conveying of a speech or recording (жива мова або
запис).
It can proceed/ be performed in 2 ways:
in succession - after the whole matter or a part of it
was heard. Then it is consecutive translation (послідовний). There is
a possibility to interrupt or stop the speaker or recording in order
to clarify some obscure places. As a result, consecutive interpreting
can take more or a little less time then the SL speech or recording
lasts.
simultaneously (with its sounding) – the process of translation
takes quite the same amount of time as the SL matter lasts and the interpreter
faithfully conveys the meaning/content (синхронний). It is
usually performed with some special equipment, technical devices (microphone,
headphones)
The oral translation/-ing from a written matter/source –
is interpreting at sight. It can also proceed either simultaneously with the process of getting acquainted with
the content of the written matter, or in succession (after each part of the matter is first read
through and comprehended (обміркований, осягнутий).
The former way of interpreting, if carried out faithfully and exactly
on time with the consecutive conveying of the matter, may be considered
simultaneous too. Usually it is a regular prepared beforehand kind of
interpreting.
The written translation/-ing from an orally presented matter/source
is a rare occurrence, because a natural speech flow is too fast for
putting it down in the TL (except for a shorthand presentation, which
would be then a regular translation i.e. (that is to say) interpretation
from a written matter). Translating from an oral speech/recording is
now and than resorted to for training practices. When the matter to
be rendered is produced at a slower speed than the written translation,
this matter/speech can naturally be performed and put down in the TL.
8-10. Descriptive,
antonymic and machine translation
The process of translation may be viewed as a number of manipulations
with the form or content of the original (SLText) as a result of which
the translator creates the TLText.
Translation transformations are
operations with the SLT aimed at conveying its meaning with maximum
(-al) faithfulness in strict compliance with the standards of the TL.
Descriptive translation is a complex transformation which is
used to explain the meaning of SL units, often with the help of hierarchically
different TL units. For example, a word may be translated as a word-combination
or vice versa.
Descriptive translation
may be used:
1) to render the meaning
of equivalent-lacking units, for instance:
units of specific national lexicon:
Верховна Рада – The Ukrainian Parliament (Descriptive),
Verkhovna Rada (Literal), Supreme Council (word-for-word), Supreme Rada
(mixed)
вареники – a traditional Ukrainian dish, mea or fruit dumplings (Descriptive), varenyky (literal)
neologisms:
stepwife – the current wife of a women’s ex-husband or the ex-wife of
a current husband (зведена дружина – теперішня
дружина колишнього чоловіка або колишня
дружина теперішнього чоловіка)
leather spinster – a successful heterosexual woman who is happily
unmarried (успішна гетеросексуальна жінка, яка
свідомо не прагне шлюбу)
Delhi belly – a disordered/ upset stomach (розлад шлунку)
himbo – a man who is good-looking but unintelligent or superficial (хімбо
– чоловік, привабливий ззовні, але інтелектуально
нерозвинутий і досить поверховий)
bimbo – a girl of the same qualities (бімбо – дівчина або
молода жінка таких же якостей – приваблива,
але поверхова)
gaydar – an intuitive sense that enables someone to identify whether another
person is gay (гейдар – здатність (дар) розпізнавати
нетрадиційну орієнтацію іншої людини
(геїв)
2) to render the meaning
of phraseological units or idioms:
as mad as a hatter – навіжений
to have light fingers – бути нечистим на руку
to rain cats and dogs – лити як з ведра
burn not your house to rid it of the mouse – жертвувати
великим, щоб уникнути малої неприємності
(співвідносити засоби та ціль)
3) in footnotes to explain obscure places in narration
spiritual – спірічуел, релігійна пісня афроамериканців
Within the text the word “metrosexual” may be referred to as метросексуал
or in a footnote explained – чоловік, який витрачає
багато часу та грошей на свою зовнішність
та спосіб життя
Antonymic translation is a complex transformation in which
an affirmative in sense or structure SL unit is rendered as a negative
in sense or structure but identical in meaning TL unit or vice versa.
It is a complex transformation,
which describes the situation from the opposite point of view. (2nd definition)
Take it easy. – Не переймайся. (an affirmative SL unit
corresponds to a negative TL unit)
Немає лиха без добра. – Every dark cloud has a silver lining.
I mean it! – Я не жартую!
Antonymic translation
is used:
1. when there is no direct equivalent for the SL units in the TL:
He was in (his) short-sleeves. – Він був без піджака. (to be in (one’s) short-sleeves – means not wearing
a jacket, it has no direct equivalent in Ukrainian language and is translated
automatically - без піджака)
Я думаю, що він не здасть екзамен. – I think he will fail the exam./ I don’t think he will pass the exam.
The defeat of the team was the result of its inferiority. – Поразка
команди була наслідком переваги суперників.
Do you mind – ви не проти
2. when a SL unit has 2 negations which create an affirmation:
She was by no means non-elegant. – Вона була досить елегантною.
(This sentence contains 2 negations: by no means and non-elegant, which corresponds to an affirmation досить елегантною)
The door was not unlocked. – Двері були зачинені.
3. to achieve a necessary expressiveness:
A bomb fell close. – Бомба впала неподалік.
No, it makes all the difference in the world. – Ні, не
все одно!
I don’t think it will hurt you. – Думаю, вам це
не зашкодить. (I don’t think – Думаю, will hurt you - не зашкодить)
I hope you will stay. – Сподіваюся ви не втечете.
She was a woman of character. – Вона була жінкою
не без характеру. (експресивне речення)
4. to avoid the repetition of the same structure close to each other
in the same text:
She didn’t utter a word and he said nothing. – Вона промовчала і він нічого не сказав.
Machine translation is a procedure in which a computer program analyzes a SLT and
produces a TLT without further human intervention.
Human interference
into machine translation is represented with pre-editing, proof-reading
and post-editing practice.
Machine translating
has made considerable progress in recent years. Nevertheless, its employment
remains restricted because machine translation can be performed only
on the basis of programs elaborated by linguistically trained operators.
Machine translation
may be successful at the level of separate words, sometimes word-combinations
and simple sentences and quite seldom at the level of text.
Advantages of machine translation are: its speed and rich lexicon
of its dictionaries, which can be useful for translation at the level
of words.
Disadvantages: preparing programs for any matter is connected
with great difficulties and takes much time, when the quality of translation
is far from being always satisfactory even at the lexical level –
at the level of words, which have direct equivalent lexemes in the TL.
ex. London – is the capital of GB. – Лондон – капітал
Великобританії
Greater difficulties
are connected with morphological elements (endings, suffixes, prefixes)
and syntactic units (word combinations, sentences) with various means
of connection between their parts. There are frequent violations of
syntactic agreement and government between the parts of the sentence
in the machine translated texts. Neither can the machine translator
select in its memory the correct order of words in word-combinations
and sentences in the TL.
As a result, any machine
translation needs a thorough proof-reading and editing, which can take
even more time than the hand-made translation.
11-12. UNITS OF TRANSLATION
Since the formal description
of any language is based on distinguishing a system of interrelated
language units, it is possible to assume that the process of translation
may be viewed on the basis of distinguishing certain units (units of
translation). There are different approaches to distinguishing units
of translation.
APPROACH # 1
The unit of translation is the
smallest unit of the SL text, functioning in the process of translation
more or less independently. The units of translation may be different
for different languages and different kinds of translation. There are
2 kinds of translation: written and oral.
In written translation the unit of translation is usually represented
by a sentence or sometimes 2 consecutive sentences – if one of them is structurally
or semantically incomplete. These sentences usually contain all the
information necessary to recreate the structure of a corresponding sentence
in the TL. The sentence – is a speech unit which contains a more or
less complete thought and that is why it may function more or less independently
in the process of translation.
ex. After all they all have day jobs. Not so Seed. – Зрештою, у них у всіх
є робота, окрім Сіда. (the 2nd sentence is incomplete)
Your presence at the meeting
is not necessary. Nor is it desirable. – Ваша присутність
на зустрічі є необов’язковою і навіть
небажаною.
In oral translation, especially synchronized translation, the
unit of translation is usually represented by a sense group (a group of words, which expresses the main idea)
or a sentence, especially if elements important for understanding
are located at the end of the sentence.
ex. Mediators from 3 west African ECOWAS nations planned today to
visit rebels in Ivory Coast as France flew in 70 more soldiers to assist
the Ivorian government. – Сьогодні посередники
від 3 африканських країн-членів ЕКОВАС
планували зустрітися з повстанцями в
Кот-д’Івуарі. В той час як Франція відрядила
до країни ще 70 військових на допомогу
івуарійському урядові.
(This sentence represents
2 units of translation, since it consists of 2 sence groups. The 1st
unit of tr. is ..., the 2nd - …)
APPROACH # 2 (= LEVELS OF TRANSLATION)
The unit of translation is the
smallest SL unit which is translated as a whole. It means that in the
TLT it is impossible to discover TL units reproducing the meaning of
the constituents, which make up the SL unit.
ex. pretty woman – красунечка (не можна віднайти
безпосереднього відбиття лексичних одиниць)
help yourself – пригощайтеся
(translated as a whole)
Each unit of translation
belongs to a certain language level. So, every translation is performed
at a definite language level.
The phoneme level
The phoneme – is
a speech sound, the smallest 1-facet language unit, it has a form but
has no meaning. This unit of translation is mainly relevant to the translation
of proper names, geographical names, internationalisms, units of specific
national lexicon and neologisms.
Bush – Буш (а не Кущ), гривня – hryvnia,
dollar – долар,
computer – комп’ютер, вареники –
varenyky
The morpheme level
The morpheme – is
the smallest indivisible 2-facet language unit (has both form and meaning).
It is the smallest sense unit.
superprofit – надприбуток, cloudless – безхмарний
The word level
The word – is the
basic 2-facet language unit. The word is the smallest independent sense
unit. Words are divisible (for morphemes).
blackboard – дошка ( - if translated at a word level,
if translated as чорна дошка – it is a morpheme level)
strawberry – полуниця, dog – собака
The word-combination level
The word-combination
– is the largest 2-facet lexical unit comprising more that 1 word.
first night – прем’єра
to come up roses – чудово виходити
The sentence level
The sentence – a
2-facet speech unit which conveys a more or less complete thought.The
sentence may express a statement,a command or a question.
Every dark cloud has a silver lining. – Немає
лиха без добра.
A cat may look at a king. – Дивитися не заборонено.
Будь здоров! – Bless you!
The text level
The text – is the
largest 2-facet language unit, consisting of sentences bound by the
same idea. This unit of translation may function in poetry.
13. EQUIVALENCE IN TRANSLATION (TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE)
Translation equivalence – is a measure of semantic similarity
between the SLT and TLT. The degree of semantic similarity between the
texts involved in the process of translation may vary /’veeri/. The
equivalence between the SLT and TLT may be based on the reproduction
of different parts of the ST contents. So, several types of translation equivalents can be distinguished:
1st type of Translation Equivalence
implies retention (утримання, збереження) in the
translation of the purport (=the purpose, the general intent, the intention)
of communication.
Ex. there is some chemistry between us that doesn’t mix –
буває, що люди не сходяться характерами,
velvet paws hide sharp claws – м’яко
стелять, твердо спати
A dissimilarity of
language units is accompanied by the absence of any obvious logical
link between the SLT and TLT. But the information retained in the translation
(=the purport of com.) is enough to ensure an adequate communication.
(It is the lowest type/level – only the purport of communication is
preserved).
2nd type of TE implies retention
in the tr.of the purport of communication and the identification of
the situation (=there are 2 meaningful components) Ex. he answered the phone – він підняв слухавку
Most of the words
and syntactical structures of the original have no direct correspondences
in the translation. But the SLT and TLT are based on the same situation
which is described differently.
3rd type of TE implies retention
in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification
of the situation and the method of describing the situation. The translation
retains the same basic notions as the original. The translation may
be viewed as a semantic paraphrase of the original which preserves its
basic notions and allows their free reshuffle/rearrangemen in the sentence.
Ex. scrubbing makes me bad-tempered – від миття підлоги
в мене псується настрій
4th type of TE implies retention
in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification
of the situation, the method of describing the situation and (the invariant
meaning of) the syntactical structure.
Ex. I don’t think that I need to convince you – Не бачу
необхідності переконувати тебе (Sentences
look dif but syntactic structure is the same,
here the Eng. subordinate object clause corresponds to the Ukr.object)
He was sitting with his arms crossed
– Він сидів склавши руки (The Propositional
Nominative Participial Construction – with his arms crossed
corresponds to the adverbial modifier – склавши руки in the Ukr. sentence)
5th type of TE implies retention
in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification
of the situation, the method of describing the situation, invariant
meaning of the syntactical structure and word semantics (lexical meaning
of words). (It is the highest type/level of TE)
Ex. The president signed a very important agreement – Президент
підписав дуже важливу угоду.
Every translation
can be regarded as belonging to a certain type of translation equivalence.
Since each subsequent type of translation equivalence implies a higher
degree of semantic similarity, every translation is performed at a certain
level of translation equivalence. The level hierarchy doesn’t imply
the idea of disapprobation and approbation because a good translation
can be made at any level of translation equivalence.
14. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS
Since language units
often function in their accepted meanings, many SL units have regular
equivalents in the TL.
Regular equivalents are divided into permanent and non-permanent (variable).
Some SL units have permanent equivalents, it means there is a one-to-one correspondence
between such units and their equivalents in the TL.
(ex. phoneme - фонема). This type of correspondence is found
with proper and geographical names, technical terms and similar words
whose meaning is more or less independent of any context.
Ex. London – Лондон, Україна –
Ukraine
Other SL units may
have several equivalents each, they are called non-permanent equivalents. This type of one-to-many correspondence
is usual for the most regular equivalents. The existence of non-permanent
equivalents implies the necessity of selecting one of them in the process
of translation.
Ex. execution – виконання, страта
(here the word execution has at least two non-permanent equivalents – виконання, страта)
According to the type of the language units involved, regular equivalents are divided into:
Lexical - it can be both permanent and non-permanent
Ex. Мазепа – Mazepa, the Ukr. word Мазепа has a permanent equivalent in the Eng. language - Mazepa)
The choice of a non-permanent equivalent depends on the context in which the
SL unit is used in the SLT. There are 2 types of context:
The linguistic
context is made up by the other SL units in the SLT.
Ex. політика – politics, policy (The Ukr.word ‘політика’ is translated as ‘policy’ – in the context ‘зовнішня політика’ – ‘foreign policy’,
‘politics’ – in the context ‘іти в політику’ –‘ to go to politics’)
The situational
context is made up by circumstances under which the SLT was produced.
Ex. he gave me a ring – він подзвонив/зателефону ав
мені або він подарував мені каблучку
Phraseological units also have permanent and non-permanent
equivalents.
Permanent equivalents may be based on the same image or different images.
Ex. to cross the Rubicon – and the Ukr.equivalent перейти Рубікон (is an example of the phraseological
units based on the same image)
to sink or swim – пан або
пропав (is an example of the phraseological units based
on the different images)
Non-permanent equivalents: Ex.velvet paws hide sharp claws – м’яко стелять, твердо
спати; слова ласкаві, думки лукаві; зовнішність
оманлива
There are practically
no permanent grammatical equivalents. Non-permanent equivalents in the sphere
of grammar are usually analogous forms or different forms with similar
meaning.
Ex. He was a guest of honor at the reception given by the embassy
– Він був почесним гостем на прийомі
влаштованому в посольстві
(here the Eng. Participle given may be translated as a Ukr. Participle влаштований or який було влаштовано – a subordinate attributive
clause ?)
The use of occasional
equivalents is much more common in grammar than in vocabulary.
Ex. He was a guest of honor at the reception given by the embassy
– Він був почесним гостем на прийомі
в посольстві.
15. TRANSLATION OF EQUIVALENT-LACKING UNITS
Since language units
often function in their accepted meanings, many SL units have regular
equivalents in the TL. A number of SL units have no regular equivalents
in the TL. The absence of regular equivalents makes the translator resort
to occasional equivalents.
Equivalent-lacking words may be translated in one of the following
ways:
1. by imitating the form of a SL word/word group through transcription,
transliteration or loan translation. In the course of time such
occasional formations may get the status of regular equivalents:
Ex. impeachment – імпічмент ( transcription), inauguration
– інавгурація (transliteration), brain wash – промивка
мізків (loan translation)
2. by using approximate substitutes, i.e. TL words with similar
meaning which is extended to convey some additional information
Ex. drug store – аптека (drug store sells medicine as well
as other goods, so the choice of the variant depends on the context)
3. using lexical transformations (ex. The word “exposure” is equivalent-lacking in the meaning of “the
medical condition caused when smb has been exposed to severe weather
conditions”, so its meaning is modulated in the process of translation.
Accordingly the sentence “He died of exposure” may be translated as “Він помер від переохолодження/соняч ого
удару”)
or the same word drugstore may be translated as крамниця, so its meaning may be generalized.
4. by using an explanation (landslide – переконлива перемога на виборах,
перемога зі значним відривом)
Equivalent-lacking phraseological units are translated in one
of the following ways:
by word-for word translation (ex. people who live in glass shouldn’t throw stones – людям, які живуть у склі краще не кидати
каміння)
by explaining their figurative meaning (ex. to dine with duke Humphrey – залишитись без обіду, white elephant – подарунок, який замість задоволення приносить
багато клопоту)
Equivalent-lacking grammatical units are translated in one
of the following ways:
by using zero translations – the meaning of an equivalent-lacking
unit is not rendered because it is practically identical to the meaning
of some other SL units
Ex. By that time he had already left – До того часу він вже поїхав (Here
the Past Perf. Tense is equivalent-lacking, the meaning of the Past
Perf.
Tense (priority - попередність)
is not conveyed by the verb left, because it is identical to the word “already” and “by that time”).
by using approximate translations – TL units with similar
meaning
Ex. I heard him playing the piano – Я чув як він грав на піаніно (Here a
complex object clause – him playing corresponds to a subordinate object clause – як він грав (Objective Participial Construction)
by using grammatical transformations
Ex. Your presence is not obligatory. Nor is it desirable – Ваша присутність
є необов’язковою та навіть небажаною
(it represents integration)
16-18. MODELS OF TRANSLATION
A model is a conventional representation of the translating
process describing mental operations by which the ST or some part of
it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually
performed by the translator.
Translation models
can be oriented either toward the situation reflected in the ST or toward
the meaningful components of the ST. Every translation model postulates
the existence of some interlingual level of equivalence.
The situational (referential) model
is based on the identity of the situations described in the original
text and in the translation. The intermediate level is extralinguistic.
The process of translating consists of two stages:
the break-through
to the situation (the translator understands the actual situation described
in the ST);
the description
of this situation in the TL (the translator says the same thing in the
TL).
Wet paint. – Обережно, пофарбовано. Keep
off the grass. – По газонах не ходити.
Make yourself at home. – Почувайтеся як
вдома.
The transformational model is based on the identity of nuclear structures in the SL and
the TL. The immediate level is linguistic (structural). The model postulates
the existence of nuclear structures common to the SL and the TL. The
process of translating consists of three stages:
the stage
of analysis (the transformation of the original structures into the
nuclear structures within the SL);
the stage
of translation proper (the replacement of the SL nuclear structures
with the equivalent nuclear structures in the TL);
the stage
of synthesis (the development of the TL nuclear structures into the
terminal structures in the TL).
They heard a bomb explode. – A bomb exploded. They heard.
A bomb exploded. – Бомба вибухнула. They heard. – Вони чули (почули).
Бомба вибухнула. Вони чули (почули). –
Вони (по)чули, як вибухнула бомба. Вони
почули вибух бомби.
The semantic model is based on
the identity of basic notions in the SL and TL. The intermediate level
is linguistic (semantic). The model postulates the existence of deep
semantic categories common to the SL and the TL. The process of translating
consists of three stages:
the stage
of analysis (the reduction of the original semantic units to the basic
semantic categories within the SL);
the stage
of translation proper (the replacement of the SL basic semantic categories
with the equivalent basic semantic categories in the TL);
the stage
of synthesis (the development of the TL basic semantic categories into
the terminal notions in the TL).
студент – а) чоловічої статі, а не жіночої (на відміну від студентка)
б) навчається, а не навчає (на
відміну від викладач)
в) навчається у ВНЗ, а не в школі (на відміну
від учень)
д) одна особа, а не множина (на
відміну від студенти)
а) чоловічої статі, а не жіночої (на відміну від студентка) – a male (not relevant)
б) навчається, а не навчає (на відміну від викладач) – studies
в) навчається у ВНЗ, а не в школі (на відміну
від учень) – goes to college or university
д) одна особа, а не множина (на відміну
від студенти) – one person
a person who is studying at a university or college - student
19. ROMANIZATION OF THE UKRAINIAN ALPHABET
Romanization – is the representation
of a word or language with Roman (Latin) alphabet or a system for doing
so.
Romanization includes 2 methods: transcription and transliteration.
Transcription
– is the substitution of sounds in the process of translation.
Transliteration
– is the substitution of letters in the process of translation.
In most cases Romanization
involves a compromise between transcription and transliteration.
There are 2 official systems of Romanization in Ukraine:
I. The Ukrainian National Transliteration System – was adopted
by the Ukrainian Legal Terminology Commission on the 19th of April 1996.
This system is based
on English orthography (only English letters) and is widely used to
represent Ukrainian geographical names, which were romanized from Russian
before Ukrainian independence in 1991.
Provisions:
The use
of the approved system is binding for the transliteration of Ukrainian
names into English in official and legislative acts.
This system
itself is not mandatory for the transliteration of foreign names into
Ukrainian (it has only one-way direction Ukr-Eng).
Transliteration
must be performed directly between Ukrainian and English without the
use of any intermediary languages
ex. Odessa (from Russian) – Odesa (from Ukrainian)
This system
allows a number of simplifications:
softening
and apostrophe marks (ь/’) may be omitted in transliteration, except for ьо= ‘o / ьі= ‘i
Ukrainian
letters which correspond to 2 Latin letters, if doubled in Ukrainian,
may be transliterated as 1 Ukrainian letter
ex. Zaporizhzhya – Zaporizhya
The system
includes a short list of official spellings:
Ukraine, Crimea (without the, not Ukrayina)
the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov
In certain
cases, traditional forms may be given in parentheses () after the official variants:
ex. The traditional form Dnieper may be given after the official variant Dnipro: Dnipro (Dnieper)
II. The Ukrainian Official Transliteration System for Personal Names
in Ukrainian Passports – was adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers
in 2007 (on 26 of June?).
According to this
system:
The Ukrainian letters Г and Г’ are transliterated as G
Є – Ie (irrespective of the position) І – I
Щ - Shch
Ю – Iu (irrespective of the position) Ї – I
Ь – is not transliterated (ignored)
Я – Ia (irrespective of the position)
Й – I
’ – is not transliterated (ignored)
20. THE TRANSLATOR’S FALSE FRIENDS
The translator’s
false friends are words and expressions which have similar form but
different meaning in the SL and in the TL. Their formal similarity is
deceptive (оманлива) and may lead to translation mistakes.
The translator’s false friends are divided into 2 groups:
words similar
in form but absolutely different in meaning (The Eng. magazine and the Ukr. магазин, lunatic - лунатик)
words similar
in form but partially different in meaning (student–студент,уче ь,той,хто чимось цікавиться(of); bank – банк, берег (річки))
The translator’s
false friends are not interchangeable due to the following factors:
the semantic factor which results from different historical development of such
words in the SL and in the TL
minister – священик, посланник, член уряду
the stylistic factor which results from the difference in connotation (an ability
to evoke negative/positive emotion) of such words in the SL and in the
TL
ambitious - амбітний (The Eng. ambitious is positive and the Ukr. амбітний
– used to be/was negative )
The colocability factor/ valency factor
which results from the difference in combinability rules in the SL and
the TL
defects – дефекти (The Eng. defects and the Ukr. дефекти – defects
in the election campaign – прорахунки/ помилки у
виборчій кампанії, but not дефекти)
The pragmatic factor which results
from the difference in background knowledge in the SL and the TL speech
communities
American Revolution – війна за незалежність США
coup d’etat – державний переворот
aspirant – кандидат, претендент
presidential ~ - кандидат на посаду президента
orale – бойовий дух
velvet – оксамит
the Emancipation Proclamation – Декл. про скасув.
рабства
the Am. Revolution – Війна за незал. в Америці
Premier – прем’єр
~ Khrushchev – голова СРСР, генсек..(бо перед прізвищем)
the Cuban Missile Crisis – Карибська криза
accord – угода, згода
Dutch – голландський
adept – знавець, експерт
ammunition – боєприпаси
decade – десятиріччя, 10 років
census – перепис населення
intelligence – інтелект, розум, розвідка
integrity – чесність
extravagant – непомірний, марнотратний (і екстрав.)
militia – ополчення, ополченці
assembly – зібрання (і асамблея)
pathetic – жалюгідний
partisan – упереджений, завзятий
invalid – недійсний, той,що немає законної
сили
guerilla – партизан, повстанець
catholic – різносторонній
execution – страта
21. Neologisms
22. TRANSLATION OF UNITS OF SPECIFIC NATIONAL LEXICON (РЕАЛІЇ)
Units of specific national lexicon – are words and phrases
standing for (що означають) specific national phenomena,
namely notions of material and spiritual life. They are: customs and
traditions (Thanksgiving Day, Ivana Kupala), administrative and political
systems (Verkhovna Rada, Congress, primaries), public bodies (назви
партій), monetary systems (hryvnia, dollar), clothes (vyshyvanka), food (varenyky), drinks (Horilka), systems of weights and measures (English mile, Ukrainian verstva, pud), proper names (Klychko, Sergii) etc.
In the course of time
such words may get the status of internationalisms, if they are important
for communication (Coca-Cola, jeans, vodka, champagne, whisky, pizza).
Taking into account
various peculiarities of meaning and form of units of specific national
lexicon, several ways of conveying their meaning can be distinguished:
1. transcription/ transliteration
(if the meaning of these units of specific national lexicon is already
familiar to the translation receptor and does not require any additional
explanation):
Lord – лорд
Гривня – Hryvnia
2. transcription/ transliteration and description (when the unit of specific national lexicon is introduced
in the TL for the 1st time or it is not yet known to the general public; the explanation
may be given either in the TT or in a footnote):
Tower of London – Лондонська фортеця Тауер
Downing Street – резиденція прем’єр-міністра
Великобританії на Даунінг стріт
Хрещатик – Khreshchatyk (the main street of Kyiv)
вареники – varenyky (dumplings/ a traditional Ukrainian
dish)
3. description only (when transcription/
transliteration is not helpful or could bring about unnecessary ambiguity
(двозначність, неясність):
The Union Jack – державний прапор Великобританії
стати на рушник – to get married
4. word-for-word translation and additional
explanation (description) (due to the complexity of meaning):
Inner Cabinet – внутрішній кабінет (кабінет
у вузькому складі, до якого входять керівники
найважливіших міністерств)
The Gulf War – війна у Перській затоці
5. word-for-word translation (when
constituents have transparent lexical meaning):
колгосп – collective farm
стінгазета – wall newspaper
орден Ярослава Мудрого – Yaroslav the Wise Order
6. translation by means of semantic analogies
(TL units analogous or similar in meaning):
Князь – prince, диплома робота – graduation
essay/project
Mr – пан
miss – панна
Mrs – пані
ms /miz/ - звернення до жінки, не зважаючи
на те чи має вона чоловіка
Ex. Wall Street – Волл-Стріт, Уолл-Стріт/-стріт
Threadneedle Street – Третнідл-стріт (вулиця
банків)
The Diamond State – Діамантовий штат, штат
Делавер
The Lone-Star State – штат самотньої зірки,
штат Техас
The Depression – Велика депресія
23. TRANSLATION OF phraseological units
(IDIOMS)
Phraseological units – are structurally
(не можна міняти місцями, бо втрачається
смисл), lexically (якщо брати синонім, значення
не зберігається) and semantically (утв. значення
в цілому як заг. одиниця, єдине ціле) stable
language units (word-combinations or sentences), the meaning of which
is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts.
Ph. units can’t
be freely made up in speech but they are reproduced as ready-made units
(готові).
Taking into account
various peculiarities of meaning and form of ph.units, several ways
of rendering their meaning can be distinguished:
By choosing absolute or complete equivalents
This is the method
of translating when every componential part of the SL idiom is retained
unchanged in the TL. This method works when an idiom originates from
Greek or other mythology (Augean stables – авгієві стайні, Pandora’s box –
скринька пандори), ancient history or literature
(to cross the Rubicon - перейти Рубікон), the Holy Scripture (a lost sheep – заблудла вівця), literary or historical
sources (the fifth column – п’ята колона) or any
other language (Eng. time is money – час-гроші, Fr. after us the deluge
– після нас хоч потоп), also some expressions
belonging to English and American writers and politicians (the cold war – холодна війна, iron curtain – залізна
завіса)
Translation of idioms by choosing near
equivalents
